Exploring the Potential of Genomics

November 16, 2023

DNA, the fundamental unit of biological data storage, consists of long sequences of base pairs (bps), representing one of four values (A, T, C, or G). This coding system is somewhat akin to binary data storage in computing. These sequences are responsible for encoding the necessary blueprints for every molecular function critical for life.

A genome, encompassing the complete set of an organism’s DNA, houses all instructions needed for its growth, response to environmental stimuli, and disease recovery. The Human Genome, a comprehensive map of our species’ 23 chromosomes, totals about 3 billion base pairs, residing in the nucleus of our cells.

Each human’s genome sequence is almost identical, but subtle variations make each individual unique. Whole-genome sequencing, a technique pioneered by the Human Genome Project, reads a person’s genome and identifies variations from the norm. These differences, or mutations, can relate to disorders, disease resistance, or sensitivities to environmental changes like sunlight or exercise.

Many diseases, including cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anaemia, result from single-gene mutations. However, diseases like cancer, dementia, and heart disease often stem from a mix of genetic and environmental factors. Reading an individual’s genomic profile helps predict disease likelihood and predisposition to certain risk factors, informing lifestyle, environmental design, and medical decisions.

Population-level genomics aggregates genomic profiles to create large datasets, allowing advanced analytics and AI to uncover complex causative factors of diseases. This approach is vital for understanding rare genetic diseases.

Advancements in DNA-sequencing technologies over the past two decades have reduced sequencing costs to under $1,000 per genome. This development suggests that routine genomic sequencing may soon be integrated into healthcare, as proposed by Genomics England.

Genes and Genomes: A Closer Look

The human genome contains approximately 25,000 genes, each typically encoding a protein with a specific cellular function. Transcription factors, proteins interacting with DNA, initiate gene expression by transcribing the gene sequence into mRNA, which is then translated into proteins.

Interestingly, only about 1-2% of the human genome consists of protein-coding DNA. The rest, comprising non-coding DNA like introns and promoters, plays a significant role in gene regulation and genome organisation. The ENCODE project has mapped these elements across the human genome.

Mutations in coding DNA can alter protein functions, leading to biological defects. Conversely, mutations in non-coding regions can affect gene regulation, potentially causing diseases. Understanding these genomic intricacies is crucial for grasping our personal health and molecular biology.

Sequencing Techniques and Their Evolution

Various sequencing strategies balance speed, cost, and depth of understanding:

• Whole-genome sequencing: Analyses an individual’s entire genome against a reference genome.
• Whole-exome sequencing: Focuses on protein-coding regions, offering faster analysis but limited to coding DNA.
• SNP genotyping: Sequences specific genetic loci associated with certain traits, used by companies for heritage and disease risk insights.
• RNA sequencing: Quantifies gene expression by sequencing cDNA from mRNA molecules.

The Emergence of Third-Generation Sequencing

Sanger sequencing, developed in 1977, was the initial method used in the Human Genome Project. Next Generation Sequencing (NGS), available from 2005, drastically reduced sequencing time and cost by reading millions of short DNA strands simultaneously.

The latest ‘third generation’ sequencing, developed by Oxford Nanopore Technologies, uses nanopores for precise molecular analysis. This technology enables faster, more versatile sequencing and real-time data delivery, revolutionising applications in healthcare, epidemiology, and agriculture.

Conclusion

Genomics promises significant advancements in personalised medicine, public health policy, and agricultural management. With its capacity for rapid disease detection and monitoring, genomics stands at the forefront of modern healthcare and agricultural strategies, making investment in genomics facilities a priority for advancing health and economic prosperity.

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Published on 16-11-2023